Keratinases: emerging trends in production and applications as novel multifunctional biocatalysts
Keywords:
Biocatalysts, bio-products, keratinases, keratins, proteases.Abstract
Keratinases are proteolytic enzymes capable of degrading rigid and insoluble keratinous proteins present in skinand appendages. They are produced in the keratinous substrates such as feather, hair, wool, nail, horn and hoof bymicroorganisms. They are mostly serine proteases, although there are very few reports about metallokeratinases.Keratinases are active over wide range of conditions, and are useful in biorecycling of keratin wastes into feed andfertilizers. They also have potential applications in leather, cosmetic, textile, biomedical and detergent industries. Thepromising applications of keratinases also extend to energy generation and green synthesis of nanoparticles. Owingto their ubiquitous biotechnological applications, techniques such as immobilization, optimization strategies, proteinengineering and DNA recombinant technology have been used to improve their activities and stabilities therebywidening the scope for commercialization. This review chronicles recent trends in the production and multi-functionalapplications of keratinases.
References
Afifi, A.F., Abo-Elmagd, H.I. & Housseiny, M.M. (2013). Improvement
of alkaline protease production by Penicillium chrysogenum NRRL 792
through physical and chemical mutation, optimization, characterization
and genetic variation between mutant and wild-type strains. Annals of
Microbiology, 64(2):521-530.
Al-Musallam, A.A., Al-Sane, N.A. & Al-Zarban, S.S. (2001).
Nutritional controls of proteolytic and keratinolytic activities by a
keratinophilic Chrysosporium from soil in Kuwait. Kuwait Journal of
Science and Engineering, 28(2):381-392.
Al-Sane, N.A., Al-Musallam, A.A. & Onifade, A.A. (2002). The
isolation of keratin degrading microorganisms from Kuwaiti soil:
production and characterization of their keratinases. Kuwait Journal of
Science and Engineering, 29:125-138.
Al-Zarban, S.S., Al-Musallam, A.A., Abbas, I.H. & Fasasi, Y.A.
(2002). Noteworthy salt-loving actinomycetes from Kuwait. Kuwait
Journal of Science and Engineering, 29:99-109.
Awad, G.E.A., Esawy, M.A., Salam, W.A., Salama, B.M.,
Abdelkader, A.F. et al. (2011). Keratinase production by Bacillus
pumilus GHD in solid-state fermentation using sugar cane bagasse:
optimization of culture conditions using a Box-Behnken experimental
design. Annals of Microbiology, 61(3):663-672.
Brandelli, A., Daroit, D.J. & Riffel, A. (2010). Biochemical features
of microbial keratinases and their production and applications. Applied
Microbiology and Biotechnology, 85(6):1735-1750.
Cai, C., Lou, B., & Zheng, X. (2008). Keratinase production and
keratin degradation by a mutant strain of Bacillus subtilis. Journal of
Zhejing University Science B, 9:60-67.
Cai, S.B., Huang, Z.H., Zhang, X.Q., Cao, Z.J., Zhou, M.H. et al.
(2011). Identification of a keratinase-producing bacterial strain and
enzymatic study for its improvement on shrink resistance and tensile
strength of wool- and polyester-blended fabric. Applied Biochemistry
and Biotechnology, 163(1):112-126.
Cao, Z.J., Lu, D., Luo, L.S., Deng, Y.X., Bian, Y.G. et al. (2012).
Composition analysis and application of degradation products of whole
feathers through a large scale of fermentation. Environmental Science
and Pollution Research, 19(7):2690-2696.
Caughey, B. (2001). Interactions between prion protein isoforms: The
kiss of death? Trends in Biochemical Sciences 26:235-242.
Chaturvedi, V., Bhange, K., Bhatt, R. & Verma, P. (2014).
Production of keratinases using chicken feathers as substrate by a
novel multifunctional strain of Pseudomonas stutzeri and its dehairing
application. Biocatalysis and Agricultural Biotechnology, 3:167-174.
Daroit, D.J., Correa, A.P.F. & Brandelli, A. (2011). Production of
keratinolytic proteases through bioconversion of feather meal by the
Amazonian bacterium Bacillus sp. P45. International Biodeterioration
and Biodegradation, 65(1):45-51.
El-Gendy, M.M.A. (2010). Keratinase production by endophytic
Penicillium spp. Morsy1 under solid-state fermentation using rice
straw. Applied Biochemistry and Biotechnology, 162(3):780-794.
Fakhfakh, N., Ktari, N., Siala, R. & Nasri, M. (2013). Wool-waste
valorization: production of protein hydrolysate with high antioxidative
potential by fermentation with a new keratinolytic bacterium, Bacillus
pumilus A 1. Journal of Applied Microbiology, 115(2):424-433.
Fang, Z., Zhang, J., Liu, B., Du, G. & Chen, J. (2013). Biodegradation
of wool waste and keratinase production in scale-up fermenter with
different strategies by Stenotrophomonas maltophilia BBE11-1.
Bioresource Technology, 140:286-291.
Fang, Z., Zhang, J., Liu, B., Jiang, L., Du, G. et al. (2014).
Cloning, heterologous expression and characterization of two
keratinases from Stenotrophomonas maltophilia BBE11-1. Process
Biochemistry, 49(4):647-654.
Gupta, R., & Ramnani, P. (2006). Microbial keratinases and their
prospective applications: an overview. Applied Microbiology and
Biotechnology, 70:21-33.
Gupta, R., Tiwary, E., Sharma, R., Rajput, R. & Nair, N. (2013a).
Microbial Keratinases: Diversity and Applications. In Thermophilic
Microbes in Environmental and Industrial Biotechnology (pp. 881-
. Springer, Netherlands.
Gupta, R., Rajput, R., Sharma, R. & Gupta, N. (2013b).
Biotechnological applications and prospective market of microbial
keratinases. Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology, 97(23):9931-
Harde, S.M., Bajaj, I.B. & Singhal, R.S. (2011). Optimization of
fermentative production of keratinase from Bacillus subtilis NCIM
Agriculture, Food and Analytical Bacteriology, 1:54-65.
Ismail, A.S., Housseiny, M.M., Abo-Elmagd, H.I., El-Sayed, N.H.
& Habib, M. (2012). Novel keratinase from Trichoderma harzianum
MH-20 exhibiting remarkable dehairing capabilities. International
Biodeterioration and Biodegradation, 70:14-19.
Jayalakshmi, T., Krishnamoorthy, P., Kumar, G.R., Sivamani, P. &
Lakshmi, C.G.A. (2012). Application of pure keratinase on keratinous
fibers to identify the keratinolytic activity. Journal of Chemistry and
Pharmaceutical Research, 4(6):3229-3233.
Jeong, E.J., Rhee, M.S., Kim, G.P., Lim, K.H., Yi, D. H. et al.
(2010a). Purification and characterization of a keratinase from a
feather-degrading bacterium, Bacillus sp. SH-517. Journal of the
Korean Society for Applied Biological Chemistry, 53(1):43-49.
Jeong, J.H., Jeon, Y.D., Lee, O., Kim, J.D., Lee, N.R. et al. (2010b).
Characterization of a multifunctional feather-degrading Bacillus subtilis
isolated from forest soil. Biodegradation, 21(6):1029-1040.
Lateef, A., Adelere, I.A. & Gueguim-Kana, E.B. (2015a).
Bacillus safensis LAU 13: a new novel source of keratinase and
its multi-functional biocatalytic applications. Biotechnology and
Biotechnological Equipment, 29(1):54-63.
Lateef, A., Adelere, I.A., Gueguim-Kana, E.B., Asafa, T.B. &
Beukes, L.S. (2015b). Green synthesis of silver nanoparticles using
keratinase obtained from a strain of Bacillus safensis LAU 13.
International Nano Letters, 5:29-35.
Lateef, A., Adelere, I.A. & Gueguim-Kana, E.B. (2015c). The
biology and potential biotechnological applications of Bacillus safensis.
Biologia, 70(4):411-419.
Lateef, A., Oloke, J.K., Gueguim-Kana, E.B., Sobowale, B.O.,
Ajao, S.O. et al. (2010). Keratinolytic activities of a new featherdegrading
isolate of Bacillus cereus LAU 08 isolated from Nigerian
soil. International Biodeterioration and Biodegradation, 64:162-165.
Liang, X., Bian, Y., Tang, X.F., Xiao, G. & Tang, B. (2010).
Enhancement of keratinolytic activity of a thermophilic subtilase by
improving its autolysis resistance and thermostability under reducing
conditions. Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology, 87(3):999-1006.
Liu, B., Zhang, J., Li, B., Liao, X., Du, G. et al. (2013a). Expression
and characterization of extreme alkaline, oxidation-resistant keratinase
from Bacillus licheniformis in recombinant Bacillus subtilis WB600
expression system and its application in wool fiber processing. World
Journal of Microbiology and Biotechnology, 29(5):825-832.
Liu, B., Zhang, J., Fang, Z., Gu, L., Liao, X. et al. (2013b). Enhanced
thermostability of keratinase by computational design and empirical
mutation. Journal of Industrial Microbiology and Biotechnology,
(7):697-704.
Mazotto, A.M., Melo, A.C.N., Macrae, A., Rosado, A.S., Peixoto, R.
et al. (2011). Biodegradation of feather waste by extracellular keratinases
and gelatinases from Bacillus spp. World Journal of Microbiology and
Biotechnology, 27(6):1355-1365.
Mohorcic, M., Torkar, A., Friedrich, J., Kristl, J. & Murdan, S.
(2007). An investigation into keratinolytic enzymes to enhance ungula
drug delivery. International Journal of Pharmaceutics, 332:196-201.
Nayaka, S., Gireesh, B.K. & Vidyasagar, G.M. (2013). Purification
and characterization of keratinase from hair-degrading Streptomyces
albus. International Journal of Bioassays, 2(3):599-604.
Onifade, A.A., Al-Sane, N.A., Al-Musallam, A.A. & Al-Zarban,
S. (1998). A review: Potentials for biotechnological applications of
keratin-degrading microorganisms and their enzymes for nutritional
improvement of feathers and other keratins as livestock feed resources.
Bioresource Technology, 66:1-11.
Ouled-Haddar, H., Zaghloul, T.I. & Saeed, H.M. (2010). Expression
of alkaline proteinase gene in two recombinant Bacillus cereus featherdegrading
strains. Folia Microbiologia, 55(1):23-27.
Paul, T., Das, A., Mandal, A., Halder, S.K., Das Mohapatra, P.K. et
al. (2014a). Biochemical and structural characterization of a detergent
stable alkaline serine keratinase from Paenibacillus woosongensis
TKB2: potential additive for laundry detergent. Waste Biomass
Valorization, 5(4):563-574.
Paul, T., Das, A., Mandal, A., Halder, S.K., Jana, A. et al. (2014b). An
efficient cloth cleaning properties of a crude keratinase combined with
detergent: towards industrial viewpoint. Journal of Cleaner Products,
:672-684.
Paul, T., Das, A., Mandal, A., Jana, A., Maity, C. et al. (2013a). Effective
dehairing properties of keratinase from Paenibacilluswoosongensis
TKB2 obtained under solid state fermentation. Waste Biomass
Valorization, 5:97-107.
Paul, T., Halder, S.K., Das, A., Bera, S., Maity, C. et al. (2013b).
Exploitation of chicken feather waste as a plant growth promoting agent
using keratinase producing novel isolate Paenibacillus woosongensis
TKB2. Biocatalysis and Agricultural Biotechnology, 2(1):50-57.
Prakash, P., Jayalakshmi, S.K. & Sreeramulu, K. (2010a). Production
of keratinase by free and immobilized cells of Bacillus halodurans
strain PPKS-2: Partial characterization and its application in feather
degradation and dehairing of the goat skin. Applied Biochemistry and
Biotechnology, 160(7):1909-1920.
Prakash, P., Jayalakshmi, S.K. & Sreeramulu, K. (2010b). Purification
and characterization of extreme alkaline, thermostable keratinase, and
keratin disulfide reductase produced by Bacillus halodurans PPKS-2.
Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology, 87(2):625-633.
Radha, S. & Gunasekaran, P. (2009). Purification and characterization
of keratinase from recombinant Pichia and Bacillus strains. Protein
Expression and Purification, 64(1):24-31.
Rai, S.K. & Mukherjee, A.K. (2011). Optimization of production of
an oxidant and detergent-stable alkaline β-keratinase from Brevibacillus
sp. strain AS-S10-II: Application of enzyme in laundry detergent
formulations and in leather industry. Biochemical Engineering Journal, 54(1): 47-56.
Ray, A. (2012). Protease enzyme - potential industrial scope.
International Journal of Technology, 2:1-4.
Revathi, K., Shaifali, S., Mohd, A.K. & Suneetha, V. (2013). A
potential strain of keratinolytic bacteria VIT RSAS2 from katpadi and
its pharmacological benefits. International Journal of Pharmaceutical
Science and Research, 20(2):89-92.
Rouse, J.G. & Van Dyke, M.E. (2010). A review of keratin-based
biomaterials for biomedical applications. Materials, 3:999-1014.
Seid, M. (2011). Production, characterization, and potential applications
of a keratinolytic alkaline protease produced by alkaliphilic Vibrio sp.
A Master of Science (Biotechnology) thesis submitted to the School of
Graduate Studies, Addis Ababa University, Addis Ababa. p.74.
Selvam, K. & Vishnupriya, B. (2012). Biochemical and molecular
characterizationof microbial keratinase and its remarkable applications.
International Journal of Pharmaceutical and Biological Archive,
(2):267-275.
Syed, D.G., Lee, J.C., Li, W.J., Kim, C.J. & Agasar, D. (2009).
Production, characterization and application of keratinase from
Streptomyces gulbargensis. Bioresource Technology, 100(5):1868-
Tiwary, E. & Gupta, R. (2010). Medium optimization for a novel 58
kDa dimeric keratinase from Bacillus licheniformis ER-15: Biochemical
characterization and application in feather degradation and dehairing of
hides. Bioresource Technology, 101(15):6103-6110.
Tork, S.E., Shahein, Y.E., El-Hakim, A.E., Abdel-Aty, A.M. & Aly,
M.M. (2013). Production and characterization of thermostable metallokeratinase
from newly isolated Bacillus subtilis NRC 3. International
Journal of Biological Macromolecules, 55:169-175.
Ulfig, K., Płaza, G., Worsztynowicz, A., Mańko, T., Tien, A.J. et al.
(2003). Keratinolytic fungi as indicators of hydrocarbon contamination
and bioremediation progress in a petroleum refinery. Polish Journal of
Environmental Studies, 12:245-250.
Wang, D., Piao, X.S., Zeng, Z.K., Lu, T., Zhang, Q. et al. (2011a).
Effects of keratinase on performance, nutrient utilization, intestinal
morphology, intestinal ecology and inflammatory response of weaned
piglets fed diets with different levels of crude protein. Asian-Australian
Journal of Animal Sciences, 24(12):1718-1728.
Wang, P. Wang, Q., Cui, L., Gao, M. & Fan, X. (2011b). The
combined use of cutinase, keratinase and protease treatments for wool
bio-antifelting. Fibers and Polymers, 12(6):760-764.
Yang, Y. (2012). Skin-whitening and freckle-dispelling essence and
preparation method thereof. Patent: CN102614104
Yang, H., Li, J., Shin, H., Du, G., Liu, L. et al. (2014). Molecular
engineering of industrial enzymes: recent advances and future prospects.
Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology, 98:23-29.
Yue, X.Y., Zhang, B., Jiang, D.D., Liu, Y.J. & Niu, T.G. (2011).
Separation and purification of a keratinase as pesticide against rootknot
nematodes. World Journal of Microbiology and Biotechnology,
(9):2147-2153.
Zhao, H., Mitsuiki, S., Takasugi, M., Sakai, M., Goto, M. et. al (2012).
Decomposition of insoluble and hard-to-degrade animal proteins by
enzyme E77 and its potential application. Applied Biochemistry and
Biotechnology, 166(7):1758-1768.
